I trained in core shamanism in the lineage of Ailo Gaup. Core shamanism is a modern school, put together in the 1980s from the parts of the world's shamanic traditions that travel well, above all the drum journey.[1] It is a solid foundation, and it is where my practice began.

Once I started practicing, and when I took part in other peoples' living traditions, I found it lacking. What had been cut away was the local layer: the spirits of the places, and the old ways of giving back to them. The traditions I visited are built on relationships to their own land. My training had nothing like that for this land. So I started working to rediscover the Norwegian and Nordic ways, and this page follows that work.

The old ways of this land are the heart of this page. I go back into them to find what still lives: the beings people here knew, how they gave back to them, and the words they used. I test what I find in my own practice, and I keep what answers. I want these ways alive now, in the Norwegian we speak today and in the places where I actually stand. The patterns underneath the traditions show me what a complete practice holds, and the sections of this page follow those patterns, each one comparing what was done here, what other peoples do, and where my own practice stands.

Every piece of information says where it comes from. From the record means archaeology, the medieval texts, the folk collections of this land. Other peoples' ways are named to the people they belong to. Practice means what has come through journeying and working, mine or the circle I work with.

This is a working document. It fills in as the work happens, through journeying and fieldwork.

The hunter age, from about 5000 BCE

Before farming, people lived by hunting and fishing along this whole coast. At Alta in the north they carved thousands of figures into the rock: elk, reindeer, bear, boats, and people holding what may be drums. Everyone who lives here now stands on that world. The Sami are the people whose tradition runs in an unbroken line back toward it; for the rest of us, the line was broken much later and has to be dug back up.

The Bronze Age, about 1700 to 500 BCE

Farming and bronze arrived, and with them a rich trading world. Its religion centred on the sun, carved into rock all over Scandinavia as ships and sun wheels.[2] Offerings went into water and wet ground: people gave their most valuable things, axes, gold vessels, the long bronze horns called lurs, to bogs and lakes as gifts to the powers, the way later ages used an altar.[3] Nothing was written down, so the carvings and the finds are all we have.

The oldest marks on the rock are the cup marks, from before the Bronze Age began, and the wheel crosses appear with its first centuries.[2] The age had its ritual specialists. A man buried at Hvidegård near Copenhagen around 1300 BCE carried a small leather pouch with a hawk's talon, a snake's tail, a squirrel's jaw, a piece of amber, a shell from the Mediterranean, a flint and a bronze knife, and a woman's bronze box from Maglehøj held a horse tooth and a lynx claw worn smooth from years of handling.[70]

The collapse, about 500 BCE

The climate worsened and the bronze trade failed. The trading world ended, and the iron age that followed was poorer and colder.

The Viking Age, to about 1000 CE

The Norse religion we know, with Odin, Thor, Freyja, and the völva, the seeress who had her spirits sung in, belongs to this later and harder age.[4, 5] In the year 536 a volcanic eruption dimmed the sun and crops failed for years on end; some scholars believe the Fimbulwinter of Ragnarok remembers that catastrophe, and that it darkened the whole religion.[6] All of it was written down only by Christians, two centuries after the conversion.

What the texts and the graves give us is the craft. The seeress worked from a raised platform or a high seat, and the spirits were sung in for her.[5] Her grave is known too: a woman buried at Fyrkat in Denmark around 980 with a staff and a purse of henbane seeds, one of about forty such staff burials across Scandinavia.[4] The techniques had names, seid, sitting out, galdr, and the person was understood as several parts, the hug, the ham, the fylgje and the carried luck, which the sagas show being lent from one person to another.[4] The farmers of Trøndelag held three communal offerings a year, in autumn for a good winter, at midwinter, and in summer, with Mære as the centre, and that is recorded for the year 1020.[72]

The quiet thousand years, about 1000 to 1900

Christianity ended the open cult, and the daily practice survived by becoming custom. Farms set out porridge for the nissen, the house spirit, every Christmas.[7] Butter was worked into the cup marks, small hollows ground into rock back in the Bronze Age, as late as the 1800s.[8] Travellers laid a stone on the verp, the offering heap at the mountain pass.[9] The sick were healed by low reading and breath.[10, 11] The church called it superstition and mostly let it be.

The laws of the 1100s banned sitting out and seeking prophecy,[36] and in 1325 the bishop of Bergen tried Ragnhild Tregagås for sending spirits against a man.[71] Underneath, the craft went on. More than a hundred Norwegian black books of charms survive from the years 1480 to 1850,[73] the wise men and women stopped blood and read over burns into the early 1900s,[11] the farm's first holder was fed with ale and food at his mound,[65] the dead came home on Christmas night to a table left set,[74] and people sat at the crossroads on the holy nights to see what the year held.[34] Folk medicine was a living tradition over most of the country into the 1950s, and in the north the readers are still at work today.[75, 13]

The Sami persecution, 1600s and 1700s

The Sami kept their full tradition far longer, with the noaidi, their practitioners, and the drum at its centre.[12] Then the Dano-Norwegian church went after it: drums were confiscated and burned, noaidi were put on trial, and missionaries wrote the beliefs down in order to root them out.[12] The tradition survived, and Sami healing is alive in the north today.[13, 14] About seventy of the drums survive in museums.[12] The same Norwegian laws that banned sitting out also banned travelling north to have one's fortune told by the Sami, which shows that Norwegians went to them for it.[36]

The return, 1980s onward

The drum journey came back to Norway through core shamanism, the school Michael Harner built from the common core of the world's shamanic traditions.[1, 15] Ailo Gaup, a Sami author who trained with Harner, taught it in Oslo, and that is the school I trained in.[15, 16] The journey is back. What is still missing is the local layer, the spirits of this land's places and the old ways of paying them, and that is what this page works on. Some of it is already moving. Norwegian circles now teach the sitting out at a power place and ask the place for leave before a ceremony,[44, 69] and in a population study in the north in 2018, one person in seven had used a traditional healer.[13]

The patterns on this page come from setting traditions side by side. I keep the comparison to the ones I know, from my own training, from ceremonies I have sat in, or from this land's own record.

The Nordic line

The home tradition and the subject of this page: the Norse record, the Bronze Age archaeology, and the Norwegian folk customs that carried the old habits into living memory. The record is the medieval laws, the sagas, the folk collections of the 1800s, the dialect dictionaries, and living memory in the north.[36, 34, 13]

The Sami tradition

The closest neighbour, and the one unbroken practitioner line in this part of the world. It appears throughout the page alongside the others. I learn alongside it, and I take nothing from it. The drums were burned in the 1600s and 1700s and about seventy survive, and the tradition came through with its healers still at work.[12]

The Celtic lands

Ireland, Scotland and Wales: the other European case of old ways living on under centuries of church. Its record is the holy wells, the fairy paths that houses were built around, the night in the hide, and a church vigil that still runs.[22, 47, 49]

The North American nations

Many nations, each with its own ways, and they are named one by one when they appear here. Core shamanism borrowed heavily from them, so part of what people here already know as shamanic has its roots on that continent. Since 1993 the Lakota and others have declared their ceremonies closed to outsiders, so this page describes them and borrows nothing.[53]

The South American traditions

The Q'ero of the Peruvian Andes, whose medicine carriers, the paqos, have initiated me, and the plant medicine traditions of the Amazon. Sitting in those ceremonies showed me what a complete tradition feels like from the inside. The Andes gave me the mountains addressed by name, the gift before the ask, and the composed offering given to the fire.[28] The Amazon gave the plants as teachers, the long diet, tobacco as the spirits' food, and the songs received from the plants.[28]

Core shamanism

The modern school I trained in, and the baseline this page measures against: strong on the journey, thin on the local layer. Michael Harner published its method in 1980.[1] It kept the journey, the drum as the vehicle, the power animals and soul retrieval.[32] As I see it, what it dropped was the offering, the named local spirits, the voice as the opener, and the object you keep.

Every ritual happens somewhere: a room, a forest clearing, a mountain shoulder. In the old understanding, that somewhere is already inhabited. Each place has its own spirits, the ones who live in it and hold it, and a working starts by greeting them and asking their permission, the way you knock before walking into someone's home. Skipping that step means arriving as an intruder, and the traditions below each found their own way of doing it properly.

The Norse way

The old Norwegian word for the spirits of a place is vette, and the land as a whole had its landvettene, its holders.[17] These were taken as neighbours with moods of their own: treated with respect they gave help and protection, and offended they took revenge on luck, livestock and sleep.[17]

How seriously this was taken shows in the law itself. The old Icelandic law code, written by settlers from Norway around the year 930, opens by ordering ships to take down their carved dragon-heads before land came in sight, so the holders of the land would stay calm.[18] The land's spirits had legal standing.

The holders of a place were often its dead. When King Halvdan the Black drowned, the districts of Ringerike, Vestfold and Hedmark all wanted his body, because the one that had it could expect good crops, so it was cut in four and laid in a mound in each.[62] In a famine the people of Vestfold sacrificed to a dead king at his mound for plenty.[63] A Norwegian skald travelling in Sweden in late autumn found farm after farm with its door shut against him, because the house was holy that night and a feast for its own powers was going on inside.[64]

The folk way

The same understanding ran at farm scale for another thousand years. The hidden folk, huldrefolket, held the forest and the summer pastures, and controlled the game and the luck of the herd.[19] A family moving up to the seter, the summer farm, was borrowing someone's ground and acted like it: they greeted the unseen hosts, poured milk for them, and in some places left a stall in the byre free.[19] Respect came back as hunting luck and a good year.[19] Neglect showed up as a sick cow or a failed harvest.[19]

The farm itself had a holder, and the record says who he was: the man who first cleared the ground, buried in the farm's mound, who stayed and watched over the people and the farm. He was given ale and food at the mound or at the farm's tree, and the tree was never to be touched.[65, 66] In time he shrank into the nisse and the Christmas porridge.[65] When people came up to the seter they asked the hidden folk for leave to be there,[19] and in Setesdal fires were lit at every gate on the moving days to keep harm from the stock.[67]

The Sami way

In the Sami landscape the relationship to place is tended openly to this day. Certain mountains are holy, bassevárri, and certain stones, sieidi, are the offering places of a specific lake, fell or fishing ground.[20] Each sieidi had its own terms, recorded in detail: what it wanted, when, and for what.[12] The gift was promised before the hunt or the fishing and delivered after success, and a stone that failed its side of the agreement over and over could be abandoned.[20, 21]

The Celtic way

In Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, the question was asked before anything was even built. Ground that already belonged to the unseen neighbours was left alone: a house blocking the line between two fairy forts was said to be "in the way", and there are recorded cases of houses pulled down, or a corner flattened off by the mason, on the wise woman's advice.[22] The neighbours themselves were spoken of carefully, as the good people, by courtesy name rather than their own.[23] Permission here was a matter of siting and manners. You found out what the ground already belonged to, and you built around it.

On the Isle of Man the standing arrangement was hospitality: bread left out and the water crocks filled before bed, that water never used for anything else, and the fire kept in overnight so that the neighbours could come in and enjoy it.[68] And before a house was built, the site itself could be asked. Four stones were set at the planned corners with a smaller stone on each and left overnight, and if any had fallen by morning, the building was abandoned.[22]

The North American ways

Across many nations, each with its own tradition, the asking is woven into the taking itself. Among the Lakota and the Ojibwe, tobacco is offered to a plant before it is harvested.[24, 25] Among the Cherokee, a bead went into the hole left behind.[26] In the Diné prayers, the holy mountains are addressed by name and the offering is stated before anything is asked for.[27]

The Andean way

The paqos of the Q'ero open every working by asking the great mountains for permission, and each mountain is asked by name, because each is a person with a long memory of being fed.[28] The feeding comes first: offerings are given before anything is requested, so that the one asking has standing to speak.[28]

When I received initiation, the paqo opened the ceremony far from Peru and still called on his own named mountains, because a relationship built over decades travels with the one who built it. And before the opening, he asked us for the name of the local mountain, Gaustatoppen, so he could address the holder of the land he actually stood on. The asking works because of the relationship behind it, and the first step toward a new one is learning the name.

The Amazonian way

In the Amazon the forest is so alive and so crowded that the asking takes a different shape. The greatest trees are approached with open caution: a logger speaks carefully to the strong spirit-trees before touching them, and a father keeps his newborn away from the mightiest of them so that nothing of the child is taken.[29] The ceremony itself starts with protection, built around the people inside it with smoke, scent and song, before the work begins.[30, 31] Where the land is that thickly inhabited, respect looks like caution.

Core shamanism

Core shamanism's basic teaching has no asking of the place.[1, 32] The opening ritual in Harner's own book greets the four directions and calls in your own helping spirits, and whoever holds the place is never addressed.[1] My training matched it: the journey and the helping spirits, taught well, and the ceremony beginning wherever we happened to be. Bringing this piece back is what this section is for. The newer Norwegian circles already do it. Sjamanistisk Forbund's own guidance for a ceremony says the participants should ask the place for leave to use it, explain what the ceremony is for, and give gifts in thanks.[69]

The pattern

The place is already someone's home. Before any power is called and before any work starts, the ones who hold the place are greeted and asked, and a refusal is an answer to be respected.

Glossary

Englishthe spirits of place
Norwegian, todaystedets ånder, åndene på stedet
Norwegian, folkvette, vetter, landvettene; gardvord, haugbonde, the farm's first holder
Old Norsevættir, landvættir
Samibassevárri, sieidi
Celticthe good people
Diné (North America)the Holy People
Andean (Q'ero)Apu
Amazonianla madre (vegetalismo); ibo (Shipibo)

How it can be practiced today

  1. Greet the place before the work, in your own language. Something as plain as: good evening, you who hold this place, I would like to work here tonight.
  2. Pause, long enough to listen.
  3. A closed place is a no. Move the work, or wait.
  4. Over time, go deeper: journey to meet the holders of the places you live and work in, and learn what they want to be called.

Sitting out is the practice of going alone to a place at night, staying there in silence, and waiting for what comes.[33] In the old understanding, knowledge was held by the beings of a place, the dead and the hidden folk among them, and a person went to where they passed and sat until they came.[34, 35] Of all the old techniques of this land it has the fullest record. The medieval laws banned it, the sagas describe it, and in the 1800s farmers were still doing it on the holy nights.

The Norse way

The word was útiseta, sitting out.[33] The Christian laws of the 1100s treated it as a crime beyond atonement.[36] The Borgarting law names "sitting out and waking trolls", and the Gulating and Frostating laws forbid "journeys for prophecy and sitting out to wake trolls and practise heathendom".[36] The bans are the best evidence that it was done.

The sagas show what it looked like. In Njáls saga two men go to a dead chieftain's burial mound one night in clear moonlight, the mound seems to stand open, and the dead man is seen inside it, speaking verse.[37] In a short tale in Flateyjarbók a shepherd sleeps on a poet's grave mound, and the dead poet comes to him in a dream and teaches him the craft.[38] The place was usually a mound with someone in it, and people went there for its dead and what they knew.[35]

The folk way

Seven hundred years after the ban, the custom was alive at farm level under plainer names: sitting on the crossroads, standing in the church porch.[34] The folklore collections of the 1800s record it across the country.[34] The nights were the holy nights, Christmas night and New Year's night above all, Easter and Whitsun eve in Østerdalen, Midsummer night, and Thursday evenings.[34] The places were thresholds: a crossroads, above all one a corpse had been driven over, the churchyard, the church porch, the shore below the boat rollers.[34, 39]

The same rules turn up in every record.[34] Silence from the moment you left the house.[34] Fasting, from noon or from the evening before.[34] Then sitting, and listening, with the warning that some time passes before anything is noticed.[34]

People went to see who they would marry, who would die in the year, to get knowledge of hidden things, to set a wish, or to learn a craft, since a would-be fiddler sat at a crossroads on Christmas night.[34, 40] The ones who came were the dead.[39] The crossroads was understood as their gathering place, and on Midsummer night in the church porch, the record says, you saw your dead kin and friends and many strange beings.[34, 41]

The Sami way

In the Sami record the knowledge comes the other way round: the helping spirits seek out the future noaidi, often while still young, and the calling is suffered before it is accepted, with visions, low spirits and loss of appetite.[58] No sitting out at a holy place at night is recorded. The medieval Norwegian laws kept the two apart as well, listing journeys to the Sami for prophecy as a separate crime from sitting out.[36]

The Celtic way

Scotland had the closest match to the Nordic practice. Martin Martin, writing in 1703, describes the taghairm: a party of men went to a solitary place far from any house, wrapped one of their number in a cow's hide with only his head free, and left him there all night until his invisible friends gave the answer to the question in hand; his companions came back for him at daybreak.[47] One man from Lewis who had spent such a night said he would never do it again for a thousand worlds, and Martin calls the whole thing the works of darkness.[47]

Medieval Ireland had its incubation rites, where the poet slept, watched by others so that nobody disturbed him, until what he sought was revealed, for up to nine days.[48] The church at Lough Derg still keeps a vigil of a day and a night, fasting and barefoot, that medieval pilgrims spent locked in a cave.[49] In folk practice a girl stood alone at midnight by a stream on Hallowe'en to see her future husband in the water.[59]

The North American ways

Among the Lakota the solitary vigil is one of the seven rites, crying for a vision.[24] The seeker brings a filled pipe to a holy man and asks him to guide it, is purified in the sweat lodge, and goes alone to an isolated place, often a high hill, for one to four days without food or water, with a blanket and the pipe. Helpers bring him back to the lodge, he tells everything, and the holy man interprets it.[50] Lame Deer, at sixteen, spent four days and nights alone in a pit dug into a hilltop.[61]

Among the Ojibwe the fast came at about ten years old. The grandparents built a small wigwam in a lonely spot in the woods, the child stayed there without food or water, and every morning the grandparents came and asked about the dreams. The right dream usually came between the sixth and the tenth night, and one grandmother warned her grandson not to accept the blessings of every spirit, since some deceive.[51] The Crow built stone fasting beds on cliff edges in the Pryor Mountains, opening east, and lay in them about four days and nights without food, water or fire.[52] In the Inuit accounts that Rasmussen collected, the strongest words of power are the ones found in solitude.[43]

Tobacco is the request throughout: it is what the seeker brings to the holy man, and what fills the pipe.[53] In 2003 the Keeper of the Sacred Pipe of the Lakota declared the vision quest closed to non-Natives.[53] It is theirs, and this page only describes it.

The Andean way

The Andean highlands have no solitary vigil in the record. Night work there is done in company: the paqo's session in a closed room into which the mountains are said to enter, and the night on the glacier at Qoyllur Rit'i, where the bear-dancers pray to the mountains and fight the condemned dead until morning.[54, 60] The ancient dead of the highlands are approached with caution, since their places are held to cause illness in those who do not respect them.[54]

The Amazonian way

In the Amazon the night work runs on tobacco. Among the Matsigenka the men share tobacco at dusk, and a man's tobacco is held to be a concrete form of his power, so sharing it passes power on.[55] The old Shipibo healer withdrew into his mosquito net at night with his pipe and his tobacco juice.[29] Among the Warao of the Orinoco the spirits are fed with tobacco smoke, and the most important of them are the dead great healers of the past, kept in ancestor stones and called on with smoke.[57]

The one solitary quest with a named place is the Shuar one: the young man goes deep into the forest to a sacred waterfall, fasts, bathes in the fall, takes tobacco water to feed his spirit helpers, and waits for days for a vision of the soul that will protect him.[56] The long retreat of the dieta, months alone on plain food with no salt, sugar or sex, is where the plants teach, and the length of the diet decides the knowledge.[30, 31]

Core shamanism

The practice came back to Norway through core shamanism under the name utesitting.[44] Ailo Gaup gave it a chapter in Sjamansonen in 2005: go out into nature with as little weight as possible in the pack and in the mind, spend the time alone at a place, sit still and motionless, and wait for a vision, over days.[44] His students joined it to the power place, the kraftsted: a place of your own in nature, near where you live, where the layer between the worlds is thin, that you return to often.[45]

Gaup did not connect the practice to the old word or to the laws, and his language is that of the North American vision quest.[44] The difference between the old form and the modern one is the frame. In the old practice the place was chosen for who passed there, and the sit was a meeting with them. In the modern form the place is chosen for a quality it has.

The pattern

A person goes alone to a threshold place on a chosen night, keeps silence and a light fast, sits still, holds one question, and waits. What comes differs by tradition. In the Nordic and Celtic record it is the beings of the place and the dead who answer. In the North American and Shuar record it is a guardian power for the person's life. In both, the sit is where the relationship begins.

Glossary

Englishsitting out
Norwegian, todayå sitte ute; utesitting, the word in use since Gaup
Norwegian, folkå sitte på korsvegen, å stå i kirkesvalen
Old Norseútiseta, sitja úti
Swedish, folkårsgång[46]
Scottish Gaelictaghairm
Lakotahanblecheyapi, crying for a vision
Shuarthe arutam quest at the waterfall
Amazonianla dieta
Core shamanismutesitting, kraftsted

How it can be practiced today

  1. Find a place you can return to, one that means something to you or is simply a good spot.
  2. Go alone, at night, when the world is quiet.
  3. Greet the place, as in Asking the Place, and sit.
  4. Wait, and take what comes: a thought, an answer, a conversation.
  5. Go back. The relationship is built by returning.

How I practice it

I did this for years before I knew there was a word for it, let alone a tradition on this land. I have my places: the dark far end of Sognsvann, the open fields near Valle Hovin, and a bench in my local cemetery that looks out over the city and the highway and still gives a decent view of the stars. I go when the stars and the moon are out.

For me the practice begins with the walk. Something is on my mind, and I let it turn over as I go. Night is the time for it because the human world has gone quiet and the energies are calm, so there is less noise for the nervous system to filter. By the time I sit, the thinking has become something else. Stray thoughts arrive that are not mine. Sometimes a whole conversation opens, with ascended masters, angels, ETs or ancestors. I take it home, and some of it becomes work.

This page is a working document. The chapters above are the ones that are researched, tested and written. Among the things still to come:

  • The fire. The bonfire circle as its own practice.
  • Runes as they were actually used.
  • The healer's craft: reading and breath, measuring, steel and Thursday evening.
  • The person, the dead, and the year.

Each one goes up when the research is done and the practice is real.

Sources

Numbers in the text point to the entries below. Where a source is online, the link is given.

  1. Michael Harner, The Way of the Shaman, 1980, read online (1982 edition).
  2. Flemming Kaul, Ships on Bronzes: A Study in Bronze Age Religion and Iconography, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 1998.
  3. Nationalmuseet, The lurs from Brudevælte.
  4. Neil Price, The Viking Way, 2nd ed. 2019.
  5. Eiríks saga rauða, chapter 4.
  6. Bo Gräslund and Neil Price, Twilight of the gods? The 'dust veil event' of AD 536 in critical perspective, Antiquity 86, 2012, pp. 428-443, read online.
  7. I. L. Stovner, nisse, Store norske leksikon, read online.
  8. Historiska museet, Bronsålderns lyckostenar.
  9. Det Norske Akademis ordbok, verp, read online.
  10. A. Chr. Bang, Norske Hexeformularer og Magiske Opskrifter, 1901-1902.
  11. Store norske leksikon, blodstemming, read online.
  12. Håkan Rydving, The End of Drum-Time, 1993.
  13. "The prayer circles in the air", International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 2018, read online.
  14. NAFKAM, Samisk folkemedisin, read online.
  15. Trude Fonneland, Shamanism in Contemporary Norway: Concepts in Conflict, Religions 9:223, 2018, read online.
  16. Store norske leksikon, Ailo Gaup, read online.
  17. A.-S. Schjøtner Skaar, vette, Store norske leksikon, read online.
  18. Landnámabók (Hauksbók), Úlfljót's law on the dragon-heads, read online.
  19. S. Lutro, hulder, Store norske leksikon, read online.
  20. Store norske leksikon, sieidi, read online.
  21. Tiina Äikäs, From Boulders to Fells, 2015, read online.
  22. Paul Devereux, Fairy Paths in Ireland and Wales, ICRL technical report, citing Lady Gregory 1920 and Mac Manus 1959, read online.
  23. Robert Kirk, The Secret Commonwealth, 1691, ed. Andrew Lang, read online.
  24. Black Elk and Joseph Epes Brown, The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk's Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux, 1953, read online.
  25. Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission, Asemaa (Tobacco), teacher supplement, read online.
  26. James Mooney, The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees, 1891, read online.
  27. Washington Matthews, The Mountain Chant: A Navajo Ceremony, 1887, read online.
  28. Inge Bolin, Rituals of Respect, 1998.
  29. J. Tournon et al., Ethnobotany of the Shipibo-Konibo, in Horák et al., A Reader in Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy, read online.
  30. Stephan V. Beyer, Singing to the Plants, 2009, author's excerpt; and What Do the Spirits Want from Us?, 2012, read online.
  31. Luis Eduardo Luna, The Concept of Plants as Teachers among Four Mestizo Shamans of Iquitos, Northeastern Peru, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 11, 1984, read online.
  32. Foundation for Shamanic Studies, The Way of the Shaman: The Basics, workshop description, read online.
  33. Richard Cleasby and Guðbrandur Vigfússon, An Icelandic-English Dictionary, 1874, entry úti-seta, read online.
  34. Joh. Th. Storaker, Tiden i den norske Folketro, ed. Nils Lid, 1921, read online.
  35. Store norske leksikon, trolldom, article by Skaar, 2026, read online.
  36. Borgartingsloven, eldre kristenrett, chapter 16; Gulatingsloven, chapter 32; Frostatingsloven V 45. Editions: De eldste østlandske kristenrettene, 2008, read online; Den eldre Gulatingslova, 1994, read online.
  37. Njáls saga, chapter 78.
  38. Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds, in Flateyjarbók.
  39. Hans Eidnes, Tru og tradisjon, 1946, read online.
  40. Nicolaissen, Larmer i fjell, buldrer i hav, read online.
  41. Ørnulf Hodne, Kjærlighetsmagi, 1994, read online.
  42. A. Irving Hallowell, Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior, and World View, 1960, read online.
  43. Knud Rasmussen, Intellectual Culture of the Iglulik Eskimos, 1929, read online.
  44. Ailo Gaup, Sjamansonen, 2005, read online.
  45. Øyvind Martinsen, Inn i sjamanismen, 2020, read online.
  46. Tommy Kuusela, "He met his own funeral procession": The Year walk-ritual in Swedish folk tradition, 2016.
  47. Martin Martin, A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, 1703, quoted in Andrew Wiseman, Caterwauling and Demon Raising: The Ancient Rite of the Taghairm?, Scottish Studies 35, 2010, read online.
  48. Sanas Cormaic, c. 900, on imbas forosnai, translated in Nora K. Chadwick, Scottish Gaelic Studies 4, 1935, quoted in Wiseman 2010.
  49. Catholics and Cultures, Barefoot pilgrims hold 24-hour vigil, three-day fast at Lough Derg, read online.
  50. Akta Lakota Museum, Hanblecheyapi, Crying for a Vision, read online.
  51. Paul Radin, Some Aspects of Puberty Fasting among the Ojibwa, Geological Survey of Canada, 1914, read online.
  52. Lawrence Loendorf, Vision Quest Structures, Pryor Mountains archaeology, read online.
  53. Arvol Looking Horse, Proclamation on the Protection of Ceremonies, 13 March 2003, Indian Country Today, read online.
  54. Xavier Ricard Lanata, Ladrones de sombra, IFEA 2007, chapter 5, read online.
  55. Glenn Shepard, Agony and Ecstasy in the Amazon, Chacruna, read online.
  56. Michael Harner, The Jivaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls, 1972; and My Path in Shamanism, Foundation for Shamanic Studies, read online.
  57. Human Relations Area Files, Warao: Religion and Expressive Culture, read online.
  58. Margrethe Løøv, noaide, Store norske leksikon, read online.
  59. The Schools' Collection, Dúchas, National Folklore Collection of Ireland, Cloonarrow school, read online.
  60. Associated Press, Thousands of Peruvian pilgrims attend Snow Star festival, 2016, read online.
  61. National Park Service, John Fire Lame Deer, read online.
  62. Hálfdanar saga svarta, chapter 9, in Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Laing translation, read online.
  63. Óláfs þáttr Geirstaðaálfs, in Flateyjarbók; summary in Wikipedia, Olaf Geirstad-Alf.
  64. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Austrfararvísur, as summarised in Store norske leksikon, blot, read online.
  65. Store norske leksikon, haugbonde, read online.
  66. Norsk Ordbok, gardvord, read online.
  67. I. Reichborn-Kjennerud, Vår gamle trolldomsmedisin I, 1928, p. 116, read online.
  68. A. W. Moore, The Folk-lore of the Isle of Man, 1891, chapters 3 and 7, read online.
  69. Sjamanistisk Forbund, Hva innebærer en sjamanistisk seremoni?, 2025, read online.
  70. Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen, the Hvidegård and Maglehøj graves.
  71. Eldar Heide, Gand, seid og åndevind, 2006, read online.
  72. Óláfs saga helga, in Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Laing translation, read online.
  73. Norsk folkeminnesamling, University of Oslo, Svartebøker, read online.
  74. Store norske leksikon, julenatt, read online.
  75. Lokalhistoriewiki, Folkemedisin, read online.